R-CNN & Fast R-CNN & Faster R-CNN

R-CNN: Rich Feature Hierarchies for Accurate Object Detection and Semantic Segmentation

Paper：http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/~rbg/#girshick2014rcnn
Tech report: http://arxiv.org/pdf/1311.2524v5.pdf
Project：https://github.com/rbgirshick/rcnn
Slides: http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/~rbg/slides/rcnn-cvpr14-slides.pdf

Referrence: a blog

object detection system

Three modules:

1. Generate region proposals (~2k/image)
2. Compute CNN features
3. Classify regions using linear SVM

R-CNN at test time

• Region proposals Proposal-method agnostic, many choices:
  • Selective Search (2k/image "fast mode") [van de Sande, Uijlings et al.] (Used in this work)(Enable a controlled comparison with prior detection work)
  • Objectness [Alexe et al.]
  • Category independent object proposals [Endres & Hoiem]
  • CPMC [Carreira & Sminchisescu] - segmentation
  • BING [Ming et al.] – fast
  • MCG [Arbelaez et al.] – high-quality segmentation
• Feature extraction with CNN
  • Dilate the proposal (At the warped size there are exactly p=16 pixels warped image context around the original box)
  • Crop and scale to 227*227(anisotropic)
  • Forward propagate in AlexNet (5conv & 2fc). Get fc_7 layer features.
• Classify regions by SVM
  • linear SVM per class (With the sofmax classifier from fine-tuning mAP decreases from 54% to 51%)
  • greedy NMS(non-maximum suppression) per class : rejects a region if it has an intersection-overunion (IoU) overlap with a higher scoring selected region larger than a learned threshold.
• Object proposal refinement
  • Linear bounding-box regression on CNN features (pool_5 feature: mAP ~4% up)
  • (in Appendix C)

Training R-CNN

• Bounding-box labeled detection data is scarce

• Use supervised pre-training on a data-rich auxiliary task and transfer to detection

• Supervised pre-training

  Pre-train CNN on ILSVRC2012(1.2 million 1000-way image classification) using image-level annotations only

• Domain-specific fine-tuing
  Adapt to new task(detection) and new domain(warped proposal)

  • random initialize (N+1)-way classification layer (N classes + background)
  • Positives: $\geq$0.5 IoU overlap with a ground-truth box. Negative: o.w.
  • SGD: learning rate: 0.001 (1/10 of original) mini-batch: 32 pos & 96 neg

• Train binary SVM

  • IoU overlap threshold: grid search over {0, 0.1, ... 0.5} IoU = 0.5 : mAP ~5% down IoU = 0.0 : mAP ~4% down

Fast R-CNN

Paper: http://arxiv.org/pdf/1504.08083v1.pdf

Project: https://github.com/rbgirshick/fast-rcnn

Referrence: blog

Motivation

Drawback of R-CNN and the modification:

1. Training is a multi-stage pipeline. -> End-to-end joint training.
2. Training is expensive in space and time. -> Convolutional layer sharing. Classification in memory.
   For SVM and regressor training, features are extracted from each warped object proposal in each image and written to disk.(VGG16, 5k VOC07 trainval images : 2.5 GPU days). Hundreds of gigabytes of storage.
3. Test-time detection is slow. -> Single scale testing, SVD fc layer.
   At test-time, features are extracted from each warped proposal in each img. (VGG16: 47s / image).

Contributions:

1. Higher detection quality (mAP) than R-CNN
2. Training is single-stage, using a multi-task loss
3. All network layers can be updated during training
4. No disk storage is required for feature caching

Fast R-CNN training

• RoI pooling layer
  • Find the patch in feature map corresponding to the RoI; Get fixed-length feature using SPPnet to feed in fc layer
  • A simplified version of the spatial pyramid pooling used in SPPnet, in which "pyramid" has only one level
  • Input : N feature maps (last conv layer $H \times W \times C$), a list of R RoI(tuple [n, r, c, h, w] n: index of a feature map, (r,c): top-left loc) (R $\ll$ N)
  • Output: max-pooled feature maps($H'\times W'\times C$) (H'$\leq$H, W'$\leq$W)
• Use pre-trained Networks Tree transformations:(VGG 16)
  • last pooling layer -> RoI pooling layer (H'*W' compatibale to fc layer)
  • final fc and softmax layer -> two sibling layers: fc + (K+1)-softmax and fc + bounding box regressor ($K$ is the number of the classes)
  • Modified to take two data inputs: N feature maps and a list of RoI
• Fine-tuning for detection
  • Back propogation through SPP layer.
  • BP through conv: Image-centric sampling. mini-batch sample hierachically: images -> RoI
    • Same image shares computation and memory
  • Joint optimaize a softmax classifier and bounding-box regressors
  • Multi-task Loss
    • Two sibling output layers:
      1. fc + (K+1)-softmax: Discrete probability distribution per RoI $p = (p_0, .., p_K)$
      2. fc + bbox regressor: bbox regression offsets $t^k = (t^k_x, t^k_y, t^k_w, t^k_h)$, $t^k$: a scale -invariant translation and log-space height-width shift relative to an object proposal
    • Multi-task loss $L(p, k^*, t, t^*) = L_{cls}(p, k^*) + \lambda[k^* \geq 1]L_{loc}(t, t^*)$ where $k^*$ is the true class label
      1. $L_{cls}(p, k^*) = -\log p_{k^*}$ : standard cross entropy/log loss
      2. $L_{loc}$ : $t^* = (t^*_x, t^*_y, t^*_w, t^*_h)$ true bbox regression target $t = (t_x, t_y, t_w, t_h)$ predicted tuple for class $k$ $L_{loc}(t, t^*) = \sum_{i \in \{x,y,w,h\}} \text{smooth}_{L_1}(t_i, t_i^*)$
      3. $\text{smooth}_{L_1}(x) = \left\{ \begin{matrix} \text{0.5}x^2 & \text{if}|x|<1\\|x|-0.5 & \text{otherwise}\end{matrix}\right.$ smoothed $L_1$ loss : less sensitive to outliers (R-CNN L2 loss: requires significant tuning of learning rate, prevent exploding gradients)
      4. hyper-parameter: $\lambda$ (=1) normalize $t^*$ to zero mean and unit variance
    • Mini-batch Sampling
      • 128: 2 randomly sampled images with 64 PoI sampled from each image
      • 25% positive: IoU > 0.5
      • 75% background:IoU $\in$ [0.1, 0.5)
      • horizontally flipped with prob = 0.5
    • BP through RoI Pooling Layer $\displaystyle \frac{\partial L}{\partial x} = \sum_{r \in R} \sum_{y\in r}[y ~ \text{polled}~ x] \frac{\partial L}{\partial y}$ (if $x$ was argmax assigned to $y$ during the pool)
    • SGD hyper-parameter
      • new fc for softmax is initialized by N(0, 0.01)
      • new fc for bbox-reg is initilized by N(0. 0.001)
      • base_lr: 0.001 weight_lr: 1 bias_lr: 2
      • VOC07 VOC12: 30k-iter -> lr = 0.0001 10k-iter (larger dataset: momentum term 0.9 weight decay 0.0005)
  • Scale Invariance
    • scale invariance object detection : brute-force learning; using image pyramids [followed SPP]

Fast R-CNN detection

• R ~ 2k, Forward pass, assign detection confidence $\Pr (\text{calss}=k|r) = p_k$, ans NMS
• Truncated SVD for faster detection
  • mAP ~ 0.3% down; speed ~ 30% up
  • number of RoI for detection is large -> time spent on fc
  • $W \sim U\Sigma_tV^T$ (U : $u*t$, $\Sigma_t$: $t*t$, V: $v*t$)
  • Compression : ($Wx+b$) fc -> ($\Sigma_tV^T x$) fc + ($Ux+b$) fc

Faster R-CNN

Paper: http://arxiv.org/abs/1506.01497
Caffe Project: https://github.com/ShaoqingRen/caffe

Reference: blog1 blog2

Region Proposal Networks

RPN input: image of any size, output: rectangular object proposals with objectness score

• Fully convolutional network share computation with Fast R-CNN detection network(share conv layer)
• Slide on n*n conv feature map output by last shared conv layer(ZF 5conv, VGG 13conv)
  • Sliding window mapped to a lower-dim vector(256-d ZF， 512-d VGG) (n = 3 large recpt field)
  • Fed into two sibling fc layers(1*1 conv): bbox-reg layer + box-cls layer
• Translation-Invariant Anchors
  • At each sliding window loc, pridict k proposal: 4k outputs for reg layer, 2k outputs for cls layer (binary softmax).
  • Anchor: centered at sliding window with scale and aspect ratio: ($128^2, 256^2, 512^2$; 1:2, 2:1, 1:1)
  • For a conv feature map: $W*H*k$ (k=9 anchors) (2+4)*9 output layer
• Loss function for Learning Region Proposal
  • positive label: the anchor has highest IoU with a gt-box or has an IoU>0.7 with any gt-box
  • negative label: IoU<0.3 for all gt-box
  • Objective function with multi-task loss: Similar to Fast R-CNN. $L(p_i, t_i) = L_{cls(p_i, p_i^*)} + \lambda p_i^* L_{reg}(t_i, t_i^*)$ where $p_i^*$ is 1 if the anchor is labeled positive, and is 0 if the anchor is negative.
  • $\lambda=10$ bias towards better box location
• Optimization
  • fcn trained by end-to-end by bp and sgd
  • image-centric sampling strategy, sample 256 anchors in an image(Pos:neg = 1:1)
  • new layer initialization ~ N(0, 0.01)
  • tune ZFnet and conv3_1 and up for VGGnet, lr=0.001 for 60k batches, 0.0001 for 20k on PASCAL

• Share Convolutional Features for Region Proposal and Objection Detection

  Four-step training algorithm:

  1. Train RPN, initialized with ImageNet pre-trained model
  2. Train a separate detection network by Fast R-CNN using proposals generated by step-1 RPN, initialized by ImageNet pre-trained model
  3. Fix conv layer, fine-tune unique layers to RPN, initialized by detector network in Step2
  4. Fix conv layer, fine-tune fc-layers of Fast R-CNN